CONTEMPORARY TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF SELF-DISINTEGRATING SLAGS OF LOW-CARBON FERROCHROME PRODUCTION

The production of low-carbon ferrochrome is inevitably accompanied by the formation of significant volumes of slags, the key feature of which is their ability to spontaneously disintegrate upon cooling and exposure to atmospheric factors. This phenomenon is caused by polymorphic transformations of β-dicalcium silicate (C2S) into the γ-modification, accompanied by an increase in volume. This unique characteristic, on the one hand, creates challenges in waste management, on the other hand, it opens up wide opportunities for their efficient and cost-effective disposal without the need for expensive crushing. This review article is a systematic analysis and generalization of modern high-performance world-class technologies for the use of self-decaying slags produced by low-carbon ferrochrome. Special attention is paid to their use in the production of building materials (cements, concretes, binders), sorbents for water treatment, ameliorants for agriculture, as well as in road construction. This paper provides a literary review of fifty-seven sources published over the past ten years describing the most effective technologies for the use of self-decaying slags for the production of low-carbon ferrochrome.
The purpose of the article is to demonstrate the potential of these slags as valuable secondary raw materials that contribute to reducing the environmental burden, increasing the resource efficiency of ferroalloy production and developing the principles of circular economy.

1. Characteristics of ferrochrome slag aggregate and its uses as a green material in concrete – a review / A.I. Fares et al // Construction and Building Materials. – 2021. – Т. 294. – H. 123552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123552.

2. Research progress on controlled low-strength materials: metallurgical waste slag as cementitious materials / Y. Liu et al // Materials. – 2022. – Т. 15(3). – Р. 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030727.

3. Characteristics of steel slags and their use in cement and concrete – A review / Y. Jiang et al // Resources, Conservation and Recycling. – 2018. – Т. 136. – Р. 187-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.023.

4. Nagarajan M. Some investigation on ternary powder (binder) technology incorporated with ferrochrome slag as fine aggregate in concrete / M. Nagarajan, P. Vijayan // Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. – 2023. – Т. 25(5). – Р. 2822-2834. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-023-01710-y.

5. Acharya P.K. Utilization of ferrochrome wastes such as ferrochrome ash and ferrochrome slag in concrete manufacturing / P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro // Waste Management & Research. – 2016. – Т. 34(8). – Р. 764-774. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X16654751.

6. Green transformation of ferrochrome slag by geopolymers: Physical properties, fly ash replacement and chromium immobilization / S. Yu et al // Construction and Building Materials. – 2025. – Т. 462. – Р. 140063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.140063.

7. Kinetics and mechanism of Pb (II), Cd (II) and Cu (II) adsorption on ferrochrome ash from aqueous solutions / Е. Ugurlu et al // International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry. – 2025. – Т. 105(10). – Р. 2369-2394. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2024.2315480.

8. Al-Jabri K.S. Research on the use of Ferro-Chrome slag in civil engineering applications / K.S. AlJabri // MATEC Web of Conferences. – EDP Sciences. – 2018. – Т. 149. – Р. 01017. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201814901017.

9. Integrated management of ferrochrome slag: Metal recovery, Cr (VI) stabilization, and sustainable reuse in construction materials / A.K. Tripathi et al // Journal of Environmental Management. – 2025. – Т. 390. – Р. 126268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.126268.

10. Nath S.K. Geopolymerization behavior of ferrochrome slag and fly ash blends / S.K. Nath // Construction and Building Materials. – 2018. – Т. 181. – Р. 487-494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.070.

11. Design and Study of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Concrete Based on Ferrochrome Slag and Its Mechanism Analysis / М. Hang et al // Buildings. – 2023. – Т. 13(1). – Р. 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010054.

12. Ferrochrome slag: a critical review of its properties, environmental issues and sustainable utilization / S.K. Das et al //Journal of Environmental Management. – 2023. – Т. 326. – Р. 116674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116674.

13. Valorization and enhancement mechanism of ferrochrome slag as aggregate for manufacturing ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) / Y. Zhu et al // Cement and Concrete Composites. – 2023. – Т. 144. – Р. 105298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2023.105298.

14. Influence mechanisms of porous aggregate morphology, maximum size and optimized gradation on ultra-high performance concrete with ferrochrome slag / Y. Zhu et al // Cement and Concrete Composites. – 2025. – Т. 157. – Р. 105890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2024.105890.

15. Adsorptive removal of five heavy metals from water using blast furnace slag and fly ash / T.C. Nguyen et al // Environmental science and pollution research. – 2018. – Т. 25(21). – Р. 20430-20438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9610-4.

16. Chowdhury S.R. Recycled Smelter Slags for In Situ and Ex Situ Water and Wastewater Treatment – Current Knowledge and Opportunities / S.R. Chowdhury // Processes. – 2023. – Т. 11(3). – Р. 783. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030783.

17. Mechanism of Acid Mine Drainage Remediation with Steel Slag / М. Yang et al // ACS Omega. – 2021. – Т. 6(43). – Р. 28675-28684. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c03504.

18. Pokhrel G.R. The effect of chromium on human-health: A review / G.R. Pokhrel, G. Pokhre // BMC Journal of Scientific Research. – 2022. – Т. 5(1). – Р. 27-35. https://doi.org/10.3126/bmcjsr.v5i1.50669.

19. Ironmaking and steelmaking slags as sustainable adsorbents for industrial effluents and wastewater treatment: a critical review of properties, performance, challenges and opportunities / J. Manchisi et al // Sustainability. – 2020. – Т. 12(5). – Р. 2118. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12052118.

20. Jiao M. A critical review of the material characteristics, utilizations, limitations, and advanced applications of ferrochrome slag / M. Jiao, Z. Rong, L. Zhang // Construction and Building Materials. – 2024. – Т. 426. – Р. 136180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136180.

21. Comprehensive characterization of ferrochrome slag and ferrochrome ash as sustainable materials in construction / B.A.V.R. Kumar et al // Journal of Nanomaterials. – 2022. – Т. 2022(1). – Р. 8571055. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8571055.

22. Hydration Activity and Carbonation Characteristics of Dicalcium Silicate in Steel Slag / S. Liu et al // Metals. – 2021. – Т. 11(10). – Р. 1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11101580.

23. Valuable recovery technology and resource utilization of chromium-containing metallurgical dust and slag: a review / J. Xu et al // Metals. – 2023. – Т. 13(10). – Р. 1768. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13101768.

24. Dinnebier R.E. Rietveld Refinement: Practical Powder Diffraction Pattern Analysis Using TOPAS / R.E. Dinnebier, A. Leineweber, J.S.O. Evans // Berlin: De Gruyter. – 2018. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110461381.

25. Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis / J. Goldstein et al // 4th ed. New York: Springer, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6676-9.

26. Geopolymer and Geopolymer matrix composites / D. Jia et al. – Singapore: Springer, 2020. – Р. 81-129. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9536-3.

27. De Belie N. Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete Containing Supplementary Cementitious Materials / N. De Belie, M. Soutsos, E. Gruyaert (Eds.) // Cham: Springer, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70606-1.

28. Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC Technical Report) / M. Thommes et al // Pure and applied chemistry. – 2015. – Т. 87(9-10). – Р. 1051-1069. https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2014-1117.

29. Vyazovkin S. Isoconversional kinetics of thermally stimulated processes / S. Vyazovkin. – Springer, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14175-6_1.

30. Recent trends in mechanochemical processing of fly ash aluminosilicate materials (geopolymers): advancement, challenges, and opportunities / P. Bhardwaj et al // Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. – 2024. – Т. 26(1). – Р. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-023-01817-2.

31. Bin Tasnim T. Chromium stabilization in ferrochromium slag for its utilization as aggregate material / T. Bin Tasnim, L. Tafaghodi Khajavi // Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. – 2022. – Т. 8(3). – Р. 1041-1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-022-00542-8.

32. Provis J. L. Alkali-activated materials // Cement and concrete research. – 2018. – Т. 114. – С. 40-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.009.

33. ACI Committee et al. ACI 318-19: Building code requirements for structural concrete and commentary //American Concrete Institute: Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2020. ISBN 9781641950862.

34. Advanced concrete technology / Z. Li et al. – John Wiley & Sons, 2022. ISBN 9781119806257.

35. Blum W.E.H. Essentials of Soil Science: soil formation, functions, use and classification (World Reference Base, WRB) / W.E.H. Blum, P. Schad, S. Nortcliff. – Gebr. Borntraeger Science Publishers, 2017. ISBN 9783443011291.

36. Adsorption isotherms in liquid phase: experimental, modeling, and interpretations / J.S. Piccin et al // Adsorption processes for water treatment and purification. – Cham: Springer International Publishing. – 2017. – Р. 19-51. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58136-1_2.

37. A revised pseudo-second-order kinetic model for adsorption, sensitive to changes in adsorbate and adsorbent concentrations / J.C. Bullen et al // Langmuir. – 2021. – Т. 37(10). – Р. 3189-3201. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00142.

38. Mishra B. A study on use of industrial wastes in rural road construction / B. Mishra, R.S. Mishra // International journal of innovative research in science, engineering and technology. – 2015. – Т. 4(11). – Р. 10387-10398. https://doi.org/10.15680/IJIRSET.2015.0411009.

39. Stiernström S. Evaluation of frameworks for ecotoxicological hazard classification of waste / S. Stiernström, O. Wik, D. Bendz // Waste Management. – 2016. – Т. 58. – Р. 14-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.08.030.

40. Leaching methods for the environmental assessment of industrial waste before its use in construction / M. Regadío et al // Advances in Sustainable Materials and Resilient Infrastructure. – Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2022. – Р. 339-356. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9744-9_23.

41. Domenech H. Radiation safety / H. Domenech // Management and Programs. Suiza: Springer. – 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42671-6.

42. The potential usage of waste ferrochrome slag in alkali-activated mixes / N. Miyan et al // Journal of Building Engineering. – 2023. – Т. 75. – Р. 107026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107026.

43. Characterization of ferrochrome ash and blast furnace slag based alkali-activated paste and mortar / T. Omur et al // Construction and Building Materials. – 2023. – Т. 363. – Р. 129805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129805.

44. Towards sustainable construction: utilization of ferrochrome slag as Portland cement replacement in cementitious composites / S.K. Das et al // Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. – 2023. – Т. 9(1). – Р. 329-340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-023-00653-w.

45. Al Hindasi Y. Sustainable application of ferrochrome slag as green aggregate material for novel application in concrete-A review / Y. Al Hindasi, N.H.A.S. Lim, N. Rajamohan // Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances. – 2025. – Р. 100681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100681.

46. Al-Jabri K. Influence of nano metakaolin on thermo-physical, mechanical and microstructural properties of high-volume ferrochrome slag mortar / K. Al-Jabri, H. Shoukry // Construction and Building Materials. – 2018. – Т. 177. – Р. 210-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.125.

47. Coetzee J.J. Chromium in environment, its toxic effect from chromite-mining and ferrochrome industries, and its possible bioremediation / J.J. Coetzee, N. Bansal, E.M.N. Chirwa // Exposure and health. – 2020. – Т. 12(1). – Р. 51-62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0284-z.

48. World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality: incorporating the first and second addenda. – World Health Organization, 2022. ISBN-13 9789240045064.

49. Removal of chromium species by adsorption: fundamental principles, newly developed adsorbents and future perspectives / В. Liu et al // Molecules. – 2023. – Т. 28(2). – Р. 639. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020639.

50. Efficient fluoride removal using Al-Cu oxide nanoparticles supported on steel slag industrial waste solid / A. Blanco-Flores et al // Environmental Science and Pollution Research. – 2018. – Т. 25(7). – Р. 6414-6428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0849-6.

51. Efficient adsorption of hexavalent chromium ions onto novel ferrochrome slag/polyaniline nanocomposite: ANN modeling, isotherms, kinetics, and thermodynamic studies / M.I. Khan et al // Environmental Science and Pollution Research. – 2022. – Т. 29(57). – Р. 86665-86679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21778-7.

52. Study of chromium immobilization behavior in unbound and concrete bound ferrochromium slag / C. Panda et al // Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. – 2022. – Т. 24(2). – Р. 528-539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-021-01337-x.

53. Assessment of valorisation opportunities for secondary metallurgy slag through multi-criteria decision making / M. Falsafi et al // Journal of Cleaner Production. – 2023. – Т. 402. – Р. 136838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136838.

54. Salihpasaoglu F. Use of waste ferrochromium slag as aggregate in concrete / F. Salihpasaoglu, O. Sengul // Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. – 2020. – Т. 22(6). – Р. 2048-2058. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-020-01091-6.

55. Properties of concrete with ferrochrome slag as a fine aggregate at elevated temperatures / M.Z. Islam et al // Case Studies in Construction Materials. – 2021. – Т. 15. – Р. e00599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00599.

56. Costa M. Overview of chromium (III) toxicology / M. Costa, A. Murphy // The nutritional biochemistry of chromium (III). – Elsevier, 2019. – Р. 341-359. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64121-2.00011-8.

57. Dey S. An experimental study on strength and durability properties of concrete with partial replacement of aggregate with ferrochrome slag / S. Dey, A. Anurag, Praveen V.V. Kumar // Architecture, Structures and Construction. – 2022. – Т. 2(3). – Р. 335-347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44150-022-00072-7.